Advancing Community Organizing Practice: Mediratta and Smith
contents | intro | background | three profiles | lessons | implications | refs/notes/apps
Dalit Movements
Appavoo, James Theophilus (1986): Folklore for Change, Tamil Nadu Theological Seminary, Madurai.
Aruldoss, Rev. Dr. T (1997): Why Dalit Theology, J&D Publications, Madurai.
Fernandes, Walter (1996): The Emerging Dalit Identity: The Re-Assertion of the Subalterns, Indian Social Institute, New Delhi.
Gopinath, M, ed.(1998): Nagaloka: The Fractured History and Forgotten Glory of the Bahujan Indians, Dalit Sahitya Sanghatane, Bangalore.
Guru, Gopal (1997): Dalit Cultural Movement and Dialectics of Dalit Politics in Maharashtra, Vikas Adhyayan Kendra, Mumbai.
____ (1993): The Emergence of Indigenous Peoples, Collection of papers presented at the First All India Conference of Indigenous Peoples of India, Indian Social Institute, Bangalore.
Ilaiah, Kancha (1996): Why I am not a Hindu, A Sudra Critique of Hindutva Philosophy, Culture and Political Economy, Samya, Calcutta.
Jyotiraj (1994): REDS, A Decade with People, Ambedkar Resource Center, Tumkur.
Massey, James (1999): Dalits In India, Religion as a source of bondage or liberation with special reference to Christians, Manohar Publishers, New Delhi.
National Campaign on Dalit Human Rights (1999): Black Paper: Broken Promises and Dalit Betrayed, Bangalore.
Nirmal, Arvind, ed. (1989): Towards A Common Dalit Ideology, Gurukul Lutheran Theological College and Research Institute, Chennai.
Omvedt, Gail (1995): Dalit Visions, Tracts for the Times, Vol.8, Orient Longman Limited, Hyderabad.
_____ (1994): Dalits and the Democratic Revolution, Dr Ambedkar and the Dalit Movement in Colonial India, Sage Publications, New Delhi.
Pendse, Sandeep (1994): At Cross-Roads, Dalit Movement Today, Vikas Adhyayan Kendra, Mumbai.
Power, Carla: "Caste Struggle," Newsweek, July 3, 2000: 18-21.
Prasad, D. Manohar Chandra (1999): Dalit Christian Struggle, A Retrospection, Rachana Publications, Bangalore.
Raj, MC (1998): From Periphery to Center, Analysis of the Paradigm of Globalization, Casteism, Dalitism, Ambedkar Resource Center, Tumkur.
_____ (2000), Ambedkar Era, Ambedkar Resource Center, Tumkur.
Zelliot, Eleanor (1992): From Untouchable to Dalit, Essays on the Ambedkar Movement, Manohar Publishers, New Delhi.
Environmental Movements
Bhatt, Anil (1989): Development and Social Justice, micro action by weaker sections, Sage Publications, New Delhi.
Cheria, Anita and K Narayan, Bijoy and Edwin (1997): A Search for Justice, A Citizens Report on the Adivasi Experience in South India, St. Pauls Publications, Bangalore.
Franke, Richard W. and Barbara H. Chasin (1989): Kerala, Radical Reform as Development in an Indian State, Institute for Food and Development Policy, CA.
Kothari, Ashish and Shekar Singh (1988): The Narmada Valley Project, A Critique, Kalpavriksh, New Delhi.
Mathew, Koshy (1988), Voice of the Storm, National Fishworkers Forum, Cochin.
Mittal, Anuradha and Peter Rosset: "Genetic Engineering and the Privatization of Seeds," Dollars and Sense, March/April 2001: 24-27.
National Fishworkers Forum (1997): Dossier, World Forum of Fish Harvesters & Fishworkers.
Roy, Arundhati (1999): The Cost of Living, Modern Library, New York.
Sangvai, Sanjay (2000): The River and Life, People's Struggle in the Narmada Valley, Earthcare Books, Mumbai and Calcutta.
Gandhian Organizing
Bakshi, Rajni, (1998): Bapu Kuti, Journeys in Rediscovery of Gandhi, Penquin, New Delhi.
Bondurant, Joan V. (1958): Conquest of Violence, The Gandhian Philosophy of Conflict, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
Dalton, Dennis (1993): Mahatma Gandhi, Non Violent Power in Action, Columbia University Press, New York.
Gandhi, MK (1927): An Autobiography OR The Story of My Experiments with Truth, Navajivan Trust, Ahmedabad, Gujarat.
Mathur, Dr. J.S. (1977), Non Violence and Social Change, Navajivan Publishing House, Ahmedabad.
Narayan, Shriman (1969): The Selected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, An Autobiography, Navajivan Trust, Ahmedabad, Gujarat.
Parel, Anthony (1997): Hind Swaraj, Foundation Books, New Delhi.
Randolph, Susanna Hoeber and Lloyd I. Rudolph (1967): Gandhi, The Traditional Roots of Charisma, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Marxism and Organizing
Chaudhary, Shalini (ND): "In the Path of Development," People's Action, New Delhi.
Datt, Ruddar, ed. (1997): Organizing the Unorganized Workers, Indian Society of Labour Economics, Delhi.
Singh, Prakash (1995): The Naxalite Movement In India, Rupa & Co, New Delhi.
Young India Project (1988): Papers On Development and Rural Poverty, Andhra Pradesh.
_____ (1988): Tryst with Destiny, Critical Essays on Government Development Policies and Anti-Poverty Programmes, Andhra Pradesh.
____ (2000): Annual Report, Andhra Pradesh.
Women's Movements
Carr, Marilyn, Chen, Martha and Renana Jhabvala (1996): Speaking Out: Women's Economic Empowerment in South Asia, Vistaar Publications, New Delhi.
Mukhopadhyay, Maitrayee (1984): Silver Shackles: Women and Development in India, Oxfam, Oxford.
Nussbaum, Martha C. (2000): Women and Development, The Capabilities Approach, Kali for Women, New Delhi.
Rose, Kalima (1992): Where Women Are Leaders, Vistaar Publications, New Delhi.
SEWA (1988), Annual Report, Ahmedabad.
____ (1999), Annual Report, Ahmedabad.
Virmani, Shabnam, When Women Unite: The Story of an Uprising (NY: Media for International Development, 1996)
Critical analyses of Indian social movements
Bonner, Arthur (1990): Averting the Apocalypse, Social Movements in India, Duke University Press, North Carolina.
Chakraborty, Somen (1999): A Critique of Social Movements in India, Indian Social Institute, New Delhi.
Chaube, Shibani Kinkar and Bidyut Chakrabarty, eds. (1999): Social Movements in Contemporary India, KP Bagchi & Company, Calcutta.
Desrochers, John csc and Bastiaan Wielenga and Vibhuti Patel (1991): Social Movements, Towards a Perspective, Center for Social Action, Bangalore.
Omvedt, Gail (1993): Reinventing Revolution: New Social Movements and the Socialist Tradition in India, M.E. Sharpe, Inc., New York.
Oommen, TK (1990): Protest and Change, Studies in Social Movements, Sage, New Delhi.
Routledge, Paul (1993): Terrains of Resistance, Nonviolent Social Movements and the Contestation of Place in India Praeger Publishers, CT.
Shah, Ghanshyam (1990): Social Movements In India, A Review of the Literature, Sage: New Delhi.
Social Movements, "Caste and Gender," Vikalp Alternatives, Vol. VIII/No.: 1 & 2- 2000. Vikas Adhyayan Kendra, Mumbai
Wignaraja, Ponna, ed. (1993): New Social Movements in the South, Empowering the People, Sage Publications , New Delhi.
Cultural and societal analysis
Bharucha, Rustom (2000): Enigmas of Time: Reflections on Culture, History and Politics, Visthar, Bangalore.
Dietrich, Gabriele (1991): Culture, Religion and Development, Center for Social Action, Bangalore.
_____ and Bas Wielenga (1997): Towards Understanding Indian Society, Center for Social Analysis, Madurai.
Desrochers, John: Methods of Societal Analysis, Center for Social Action, Bangalore.
____ and George Joseph (1993): India Today, Center for Social Action, Bangalore.
Kappen, S. (1994): Tradition, Modernity, Counter Culture, Visthar, Bangalore.
Joseph, George (1998): Social Action Groups and their Activists, Center for Social Action, Bangalore.
Maliekal, John (1993): Indian Political Parties and their Ideologies, Center for Social Action, Bangalore.
Thapar, Romila (1999): Historical Interpretations and the Secularizing of Indian Society, Visthar, Bangalore.
Critical analyses of modern Indian politics and socioeconomic conditions
Iyer, Justice V.R. Krishna, Pandit, C.S., Kappen, S., and Hasan Mansur (1991): Challenges Facing Indian Democracy, Visthar, Bangalore.
Kothari, Rajni (1970): Politics in India, Orient Longman, Hyderabad
Kohli, Atul, ed. (1988): India's Democracy, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.,
Kurien, CT (1994): Global Capitalism and the Indian Economy, Orient Longman, Hyderabad.
Narayan, Jayaprakash (1992): Total Revolution, Sarva Seva Sangh Prakashan, Varanasi
_____ (1977), Prison Diary, Popular Prakashan, Mumbai.
Nayar, Kuldip (1975): Writings on the Emergency in India.
UNDP (2000): Human Development Report 2000, Oxford.
Viswanath, Rosemary, ed (1998): Globalization: Marginalization of Dalits, Women and Tribals, Solidarity, Tumkur.
NGOs and Voluntary Organizations
Culshaw, Murray, compiled (1998): Profile 300: Selected Voluntary Organizations in India, First Ed., Center for Advancement of Philanthropy.
James, PJ (1995): Non-Governmental Voluntary Organizations, The True Mission, Mass Line Publications, Kerala
Community organizing in the U.S.
Alinsky, Saul (1989): Rules for Radicals, Vintage Books, New York.
Barber, Benjamin (1994): Strong Democracy, Participatory Politics for a New Age, University of California Press, CA.
Boyte, Harry C. and Frank Reissman (1986): The New Populism, The Politics of Empowerment, Temple University Press, Philadelphia.
California Tomorrow (2001): "Community Organizing for School Reform Research Initiative: Site Reports from LA and the San Francisco Bay Area," Institute for Education and Social Policy, New York.
Delgado, Gary (1986): Organizing the Movement: the Roots and Growth of ACORN Temple University Press, Philadelphia.
_______(ND): Beyond the Politics of Place: New Directions in Community Organizing in the 1990s, Applied Research Center, Oakland.
Fellner, Kim (Spring 2000): ARK, National Organizers Alliance, Washington DC.
Fisher, Robert (1994): Let the People Decide, Neighborhood Organizing in America Twayne Publishers, NY.
Gaventa, John, Smith, Barbara Ellen, and Alex Willingham (1990): Communities in Economic Crises, Appalachia and the South, Temple University Press, Philadelphia.
Kling, Joseph M. and Prudence Posner, (1990): Dilemmas of Activism: Class, Community, and the Politics of Local Mobilization, Temple University Press, Philadelphia.
Mediratta, Kavitha (1995): Community-building Approaches, A survey of strategies and an agenda for future work, Rockefeller Foundation, NY.
Rooney, Jim (1995): Organizing the South Bronx, State University of New York Press, Albany.
1. We spent from two days to six weeks with each group interviewing staff and members, observing key meetings and public events, and reviewing documents. We also interviewed researchers and other observers of Indian social movements. See Appendix B for a full description of our research methodology.
2.. See, for example, Gary Delgado, Organizing the Movement: the Roots and Growth of ACORN (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986); Jim Rooney, Organizing the South Bronx (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995); and Saul Alinsky, Rules for Radicals (New York: Vintage Books, 1989).
3.
Fisher, Robert, Let the People Decide, Neighborhood Organizing in America (NY: Twayne Publishers,
1994); Boyte, Harry C. and Frank Reissman, The New Populism, The Politics of Empowerment
(Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986); Barber, Benjamin, Strong Democracy, Participatory
Politics for a New Age, (CA: University of California Press, 1984.); and
Gaventa, John, Smith, Barbara
Ellen, and Alex Willingham, Communities in Economic Crises, Appalachia and the South (Philadelphia:
Temple University Press, 1990.)
4.Delgado, Gary, Beyond the Politics of Place: New Directions in Community Organizing in the 1990s
(Oakland: Applied Research Center); Fisher, ibid.; Kling, Joseph M. and Prudence Posner,
Dilemmas of
Activism: Class, Community, and the Politics of Local Mobilization (Philadelphia: Temple University
Press, 1990); Mediratta, Kavitha, Community-building Approaches, A survey of strategies and an agenda
for future work. (NY: Rockefeller Foundation, 1995).
5.
Omvedt, Gail, Reinventing Revolution, New Social Movements and the Socialist Tradition in India
(NY: ME Sharp, 1993).
6.
Singh, Prakash (1995): The Naxalite Movement in India, Rupa & Co., New Delhi. Also Kuldip Nayar
(1975, Emergency in India. Also Narayan, Jayaprakash (1992), Total Revolution and (1977) Prison
Diairies.
7. Interview with Dr. K. C. Abraham, SATHRI, Bangalore, July 2000.
8.
This political context posed considerable challenges for data collection in this project. As one
organizer explained, social justice organizing groups feared giving the impression of receiving foreign
funding by taking our Caucasian researcher out to their local sites. Almost all of the groups we visited
receive some financial and organizational support from foreign individuals and organizations, and thus
were reluctant to expose themselves to potential harassment from local and central government officials.
9. Oommen, TK, Protest and Change, Studies in Social Movements (New Delhi: Sage, 1990);
Routledge, Paul, Terrains of Resistance, Nonviolent Social Movements and the Contestation of Place in
India (CT: Praeger Publishers, 1993); and Wignaraja, Ponna, New Social Movements in the South,
Empowering the People (New Delhi: Sage, 1993)
10.
Shah, Ghanshyam, Social Movements In India, A Review of the Literature (New Delhi: Sage, 1990);
Virmani, Shabnam, When Women Unite: The Story of an Uprising (NY: Media for International
Development, 1996)
11. We selected these organizations because they are similar enough to community organizing groups in
the US to allow for comparative analysis, but different enough that the comparison would generate new
insights and strategies. A fuller description of the site selection process is included in Appendix C.
12. SEWA in 1988: 6
13. SEWA in 1988: 14
14.SEWA in 1988: 3-4.
15. SEWA, Building Capacities for Leadership and Self Reliance, 2000: 2.
16.Parel: li-liii
17. Autobiography: X.
18.Parel: xxxv.
19.CW 8: 173, cited in Parel, xxxv
20.Gandhi, SW. vol. IV, p. 335
21.Jai Bhim is an expression developed by REDS that means 'Victory to Ambedkar.' It is now used
widely as a greeting among Dalits in South India.
22. As cited in Zelliot, Eleanor (1992): From Untouchable to Dalit, Essays on the Ambedkar Movement,
Manohar Publishers, New Delhi.
23. YIP: 7
24.
Omvedt, Gail, Reinventing Revolution: 254
25.SEWA in 1988: 14
26. Ibid: 15
Adivasi - Indigenous or tribal people. They often live in sparsely settled rural areas, and have traditionally lived by hunting, gathering, and farming.
Ambedkar, Dr. B.R. - Leader of the Dalit movement against the Indian caste system during the early part of the 20th century. He wrote the Indian constitution and was instrumental in creating the Indian system of reservations (quotas) for Dalits and other marginalized groups in education, employment and government. He used direct, mass action and electoral organizing strategies to build Dalit movement.
Caste system - Social structure in India established in the Hindu religion. The caste system divides people into four broad castes based on birth and occupation. These are Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras, which are meant to correspond to the functions of intellectuals, warriors, merchants and laborers. Below these four castes are "untouchables" or Dalits who are supposed to do "unclean" work such as cleaning sewers, collecting garbage, and disposing of dead animals.
Dalit - Indians formerly known as "untouchables" in the Indian caste system. They have been called untouchables because caste Hindus have traditionally considered them so dirty that even touching one will pollute them. Many now call themselves Dalits, a more political term meaning downtrodden and oppressed people. Their goal is to build a positive sense of identity in their communities, and to eliminate caste oppression. Many Dalits have been influenced by the struggle of African Americans in the U.S.. The Dalit Panthers is one of the most well known Dalit groups.
Gandhi, Mohandas K. (Mahatma) - Leader in India's independence movement against England in the early part of the 20th century. He built a mass movement based in the organizing technique he called satyagraha, which emphasizes truth and non-violence.
Ideology - In a narrow sense, a set of values to guide one's work. In a broader sense, a belief system that articulates 1) an analysis of society, 2) guiding values and vision for a different society, and 3) a means and method for creating that society.
Non-government organization (NGO) - Community-based organizations that are formally registered with the government. They have professional staff and are funded through foreign and Indian foundations or government programs. Most NGOs are engaged in development and service activities, although some do organizing.
People's organizations and movements - Community-based organizations that are not registered with the government, are membership-based, and have a struggle orientation. Most have neither formal funding nor paid staff.
Untouchability - Set of social practices which separate Dalits from caste Hindus.
(From Joan V. Bondurant, Conquest of Violence: the Gandhian Philosophy of Conflict.
Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1958, p. 38 - 41)
Satyagraha means firmness in truth, and is Gandhi's non-violent form of social and political action. A satyagrahi is a practitioner of satyagraha.
I. Fundamental rules:
II. Code of Discipline (laid down by Gandhi as a code for volunteers in the 1930 movement)
III. Steps in a Satyagraha campaign
Between October 1999 and October 2000, we visited a total of twenty organizing groups and support organizations. These visits ranged in duration from two days to six weeks. We also interviewed a number of academic and critical observers of Indian social movements.
We used a collaborative inquiry methodology in conducting visits and interviews to encourage ongoing dialogue between our research team and our organizer peers in the U.S. and India. This research methodology involved two main cycles of problem identification, data collection and analysis.
First, we convened a peer group of organizers in the U.S. to discuss and refine our assessment of the theoretical frameworks driving U.S. organizing work and the key challenges facing community organizing today. While in India, we reported to our peer groups, via email, on our preliminary observations, thoughts and questions regarding the work of Indian organizing groups. Upon returning to the U.S., we re-convened this group to present our findings and discuss their implications for organizing in the U.S.. (Peer group members are listed in Appendix E).
Second, where possible, we provided organizations with "snapshots" of their work for their review and comment to ensure the accuracy of our analysis and engage our Indian organizing colleagues in a discussion about effective organizing practice. This consisted largely of written reports documenting events or campaigns that drew upon our interviews with their leaders, staff and members, as well as on our observations of their meetings, training sessions and public actions. This sharing of observations was conducted more informally on shorter visits.
In addition, we interviewed outside observers and researchers to gather additional evidence of the effectiveness of these groups' work and to learn about external challenges facing the work of these groups. We also conducted an extensive literature review to understand the contextual factors that might contribute to differences in approach and practice between Indian and U.S. groups.
Site Selection
We selected Indian organizing groups that are similar enough to the U.S. groups and networks to allow for comparative analysis, but different enough so that the comparison generates new insights and strategies. This led us to focus largely on people's organizations that have some formal structure or are linked to NGOs. Our selection of groups were based on three sets of criteria:
Our focus was to work with groups whose members are poor, of lower castes and classes, or are discriminated against due to their gender, ethnicity, or other factors. As women comprise the majority of the members of the groups we have worked with in the U.S., we had an additional interest in examining the work of Indian groups whose members are mainly women. These considerations directed us to groups that work with a segment of the overall population that is demographically similar to the membership of U.S. organizing groups.
Sites were selected through a comprehensive and iterative process of identifying organizations and gathering information about their activities that would allow us to assess whether they were currently engaged in grassroots organizing campaigns. This process involved reviewing reports, research and other publications about grassroots activity across India and interviewing support organizations, academics and other critical observers of organizing to develop an initial list of over 100 organizations that might be appropriate for the study. We then wrote these groups to request information on their goals and activities. Using the information gathered in this initial survey, we identified a smaller subset of groups that were potential candidates. We visited each of these groups to discuss the research project and assess whether the group would interested in participating. We finalized the sites for this study based on information gathered in our preliminary visits.
The organizations discussed in this paper include:
A complete list of organizing groups and support organizations visited is provided in Appendix D.
Research Questions
Our initial research questions focused on a number of critical challenges facing organizing in the U.S., including: increasing participation and developing leadership; developing a values framework for organizing; and leveraging limited resources to maximize impact on public policy. This research agenda developed out of our work with community organizations, our dialogue with a range of U.S. community organizers and leaders about the critical challenges facing organizing practice today, and our preliminary research on community organizing in India. We later refined our initial questions to include "supporting organizing and building movements" in response to feedback from our peer group and our initial observations of organizing taking place in India.
Specifically, we examined:
In addressing these questions, we also attempted to identify the contextual factors that contribute to differences in approach and practice between Indian and U.S. groups. We sought to understand how differences in the outcomes attained by Indian organizing groups might relate to differences in how they develop and use culture, ideology and value frameworks as organizing tools, and whether these differences might suggest new strategies for U.S. groups.
Data Analysis (and dissemination of findings)
Data analysis included a series of presentations and discussions with our organizer peer group and other organizing colleagues in New York City. These presentations and discussions provided the opportunity to test our hypotheses of organizing challenges faced by U.S. groups and fine-tune our analysis of relevant lessons from the work of Indian groups.
1. Grassroots Organizations
- Andhra Pradesh
- Young India Project and its member unions
- Andhra Pradesh Vyvasaya Vrithidarula Union
- Gujarat
- Self-Employed Women's Association
- Narmada Bachao Andolan
- Karnataka
- Rural Education and Development Society/Dalit Jagruti Samiti
- Womens Voice
- AVAS
- KKNSS
- Coorg Organization for Community Development
- Kerala
- Janajagrthy
- National Fishworkers Forum
- Maharashtra
- Girni Kamgar Sangarsh Samiti
- New Delhi
- National Alliance of Peoples Movements
- Tamil Nadu
- Rural Education and Action for Development
- Action for Community Organization, Rehabilitation and Development
- Dalit Resource Center (Dalit Liberation Movement)
- Institute for Social Education and Development
- Tamil Nadu Agricultural Laborers Movement
2. Support Organizations and Individuals
- Gujarat
- Unnati (Organization for Development Education)
- Campaign for Dalit Human Rights
- Karnataka
- Father Aloysius, Indian Social Institute
- David Selvaraj, Visthar
- Kerala
- Program for Community Organization
- SAHAYI
- Maharashtra
- PK Das, architect
- Nayan Momaya
- New Delhi
- Society for Participatory Research in Asia (PRIA)
- Tamil Nadu
- Center for Social Analysis, Tamil Nadu Theological Seminary
3. Researchers and other observers of organizing
- New Delhi
- Ghanshyam Shah, Jawaharlal Nehru University
- Smitu Kothari, Lokayan
- Karen McGuinness
- Karnataka (Bangalore)
- Dr. K.C. Abraham, Southeast Asia Theological Research Institute (SATHRI)
- Philip George, Partners for Justice Concerned
- EP Menon
- Tamil Nadu
- Philip Joseph, Tamil Nadu Theological Seminary
- Joan Byron
- Senior Architect
- Pratt Institute Center for Community and Environmental Development
- Mary Dailey
- Executive Director
- Northwest Bronx Community and Clergy Coalition
- Munir Hakim
- Leader
- South Brooklyn Community Development Corporation
- Lois Harr
- Board Member
- Northwest Bronx Community and Clergy Coalition
- Greg Holt
- Vice President
- SEIU Local 1199
- Helen Schaub
- Executive Director
- Mothers On the Move
- Eric Zachary
- Senior Project Director
- Institute for Education and Social Policy, New York University
contents | intro | background | three profiles | lessons | implications | refs/notes/apps